Verbal aggression, criticism of people's work and the circulation of rumours about them are the favourite ploys of workplace bullies, according to research at Trinity College, Dublin.
A team of researchers at TCD's Anti-Bullying Centre studied the experiences of 30 people bullied at work.
The team, led by Ms Elizabeth Seigne, found verbal aggression was used by bullies in every case, with frequent criticism of victims' work and the circulation of rumours occurring in 90 per cent of cases. Humiliation and the setting of unrealistic work targets were also common.
In two thirds of cases, the bully was a man. Men tended to bully slightly more women than men. Women bullied only other women.
A majority of victims were in supervisory or management roles but were bullied by people higher up the ladder.
Organisational changes in the workplace seemed to be closely linked with bullying as was the promotion of a bully or the appointment of a new boss who turned out to be a bully.
The bulk of victims worked in large organisations with 150 or more employees (73 per cent) and one third worked in the health sector. Almost a quarter worked in services and a fifth in industry.
Bullying produced both physical and psychological effects in the victims. The most common physical effects were crying, disturbed sleep patterns and lethargy.
Psychological effects seem to have been stronger and more frequent. They included anxiety, irritableness, depression, paranoia, stress, loss of confidence, loss of self-esteem and withdrawal.
Victims were dissatisfied with how their difficulties were handled by personnel departments and trade unions. Nine out of 10 were dissatisfied with how their personnel department handled the issue and all were dissatisfied with their trade union's approach.
Bullies were transferred in only two cases. Four victims were suspended and three dismissed. Two victims were sent on a career break. Twelve were offered counselling by their employers.
Workplace bullying is among the forms of discrimination banned by the equality Bills, sections of which were found to be unconstitutional by the Supreme Court - though these were not the sections dealing with bullying.
The Bills were introduced by the former Labour Party minister for equality and law reform, Mr Mervyn Taylor.
The Minister of State for Justice, Equality and Law Reform, Ms Mary Wallace, has pledged that the unconstitutional elements will be amended and the Bills reintroduced late this year or early next year.